https://soh-cah-toa.pages.dev/categories/chemistry/ Recent content in Chemistry on SOH-CAH-TOA Hugo en-us Tue, 16 Jun 2026 23:32:57 +0700 https://soh-cah-toa.pages.dev/guides/chemistry/metals/ Tue, 16 Jun 2026 23:32:57 +0700 https://soh-cah-toa.pages.dev/guides/chemistry/metals/ <h1 id="igcse-chemistry-study-guide-metals">IGCSE Chemistry Study Guide: Metals</h1> <h2 id="overview">Overview</h2> <p>This guide summarizes core concepts of metals, covering chemical properties, reactivity, extraction methods, and uses. Mastery requires understanding periodic trends and redox principles.</p> <p><strong>Syllabus Coverage:</strong> Core/Extended - Review specific section requirements for detailed study.</p> <h2 id="1-properties-and-structure">1. Properties and Structure</h2> <h3 id="physical-properties-core">Physical Properties (Core)</h3> <ul> <li><strong>Appearance:</strong> Typically solid at room temperature (exceptions: Mercury). Often shiny/lustrous.</li> <li><strong>State:</strong> Solid, malleable, ductile (can be hammered into sheets and drawn into wires).</li> <li><strong>Conductivity:</strong> Highly conductive of heat and electricity due to delocalized electrons in metallic bonding.</li> <li><strong>Density:</strong> Generally high density compared to non-metals.</li> </ul> <h3 id="chemical-properties-coreextended">Chemical Properties (Core/Extended)</h3> <ul> <li><strong>Formation:</strong> Metals tend to lose electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration, forming positive ions (cations). <ul> <li>Reaction: $\text{Metal} \rightarrow \text{Metal}^+ + e^-$</li> </ul> </li> <li><strong>Reactivity Series:</strong> Metals are arranged in the reactivity series based on their ease of oxidation potential. Higher up means higher reactivity.</li> </ul> <h2 id="2-reactivity-and-reactions">2. Reactivity and Reactions</h2> <h3 id="reactions-with-oxygen-and-water-core">Reactions with Oxygen and Water (Core)</h3> <ul> <li><strong>With Oxygen:</strong> Metals react vigorously forming metal oxides ($\text{M} + \text{O}<em>2 \rightarrow \text{M}</em>{\text{x}}\text{O}_{\text{y}}$). Reactivity determines oxide strength.</li> <li><strong>With Water:</strong> Highly reactive metals (Sodium, Potassium) react violently with water, producing a metal hydroxide and hydrogen gas. <ul> <li>Example: $\text{2Na}(\text{s}) + \text{2H}_2\text{O}(\text{g}) \rightarrow \text{2NaOH}(\text{aq}) + \text{H}_2(\text{g})$</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h3 id="reactions-in-acid-solutions-core">Reactions in Acid Solutions (Core)</h3> <ul> <li>Reactive metals displace hydrogen from dilute acids, producing salt and hydrogen gas. <ul> <li>General equation: $\text{Metal} + 2\text{HCl} \rightarrow \text{MetalCl}_2 + \text{H}_2$</li> <li><em>Caution:</em> Metals less reactive than hydrogen (e.g., Gold) do not react with dilute acids.</li> </ul> </li> </ul> <h3 id="displacement-reactions-and-the-reactivity-series-extended">Displacement Reactions and the Reactivity Series (Extended)</h3> <ul> <li>A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from its salt solution. <ul> <li>Example: $\text{Zn}(\text{s}) + \text{CuSO}_4(\text{aq}) \rightarrow \text{ZnSO}_4(\text{aq}) + \text{Cu}(\text{s})$</li> </ul> </li> <li>The reactivity series acts as a predictor for potential displacement reactions.</li> </ul> <h2 id="3-extraction-of-metals-extended">3. Extraction of Metals (Extended)</h2> <h3 id="a-reduction-methods">A. Reduction Methods</h3> <p>Extraction generally requires converting metal compounds into pure element form. This involves a redox reaction. The ore must be reduced of oxygen.</p>